PART 2

World Islamic Science-Tech Review 2005, North Mughaltooly, West Madarbari, Chattagram-4100, Bangladesh. ramzanctg60@gmail.com https://www.linkedin.com/company/82102986/admin/ . بِسۡمِ ٱللهِ ٱلرَّحۡمَـٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِِ ◯ In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. ٢٤- أَفَلَا يَتَدَبَّرُونَ الْقُرْآنَ أَمْ عَلَىٰ قُلُوبٍ أَقْفَالُهَا ◯ Do they not then Earnestly seek to understand The Qur-ān, or are Their hearts locked up By them? (Sūra 47: Muhammad, (the Prophet),Ayat: 24, Verses 38 — Madani; Revealed at Madina — Sections 4,https://quranyusufali.com/47/) ٤٦- أَفَلَمْ يَسِيرُوا فِي الْأَرْضِ فَتَكُونَ لَهُمْ قُلُوبٌ يَعْقِلُونَ بِهَا أَوْ آذَانٌ يَسْمَعُونَ بِهَا فَإِنَّهَا لَا تَعْمَى الْأَبْصَارُ وَلَـٰكِنْ تَعْمَى الْقُلُوبُ الَّتِي فِي الصُّدُورِ ◯ Do they not travel Through the land, so that Their hearts (and mind) May thus learn wisdom And their ears may Thus learn to hear ? Truly it is not their eyes That are blind, but their Hearts which are In their breasts. (Sūra 22: Hajj, or The Pilgrimage, Ayat:46,Verses 78 — Madani; Revealed at Madina — Sections 10, https://quranyusufali.com/22/) ٨٢- أَفَلَا يَتَدَبَّرُونَ الْقُرْآنَ ۚ وَلَوْ كَانَ مِنْ عِندِ غَيْرِ اللَّـهِ لَوَجَدُوا فِيهِ اخْتِلَافًا كَثِيرًا ◯ Do they not consider the Qur’an (with care)? Had it been from other than Allah they would surely have found therein much discrepancy. (Sūra 4: Nisāa, or The Women,Verses 176, Ayat:82 — Madani; Revealed at Madina — Sections 24). ٢٠- لَوْ أَنزَلْنَا هَـٰذَا الْقُرْآنَ عَلَىٰ جَبَلٍ لَّرَأَيْتَهُ خَاشِعًا مُّتَصَدِّعًا مِّنْ خَشْيَةِ اللَّـهِ ۚ وَتِلْكَ الْأَمْثَالُ نَضْرِبُهَا لِلنَّاسِ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَفَكَّرُونَ ◯ Had We sent down This Qur-ān on a mountain, Verily, thou would have seen It humble itself and cleave Asunder for fear of Allah. Such are the similitudes Which We propound to men, That they may reflect. (Sūra 59: Hashr, or The Gathering (or Banishment), Ayat:21,Verses 24 — Madani; Revealed at Madina — Sections 3, https://quranyusufali.com/59/) ١٧- أَفَلَا يَنظُرُونَ إِلَى الْإِبِلِ كَيْفَ خُلِقَتْ ◯ Do they not look At the Camels, How they are made ?—' ١٨- وَإِلَى السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ رُفِعَتْ ◯ And at the Sky, How it is raised high ?— ١٩- وَإِلَى الْجِبَالِ كَيْفَ نُصِبَتْ ◯ And at the Mountains, How they are fixed firm ?— ٢٠- وَإِلَى الْأَرْضِ كَيْفَ سُطِحَتْ ◯ And at the Earth, How it is spread out ? (Sūra 88: Gāshiya, or The Overwhelming Event. Ayat: 17-20. Verses 26 — Makki; Revealed at Makkah — Sections 1, https://quranyusufali.com/88/) . ١١٧- بَدِيعُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ ۖ وَإِذَا قَضَىٰ أَمْرًا فَإِنَّمَا يَقُولُ لَهُ كُن فَيَكُونُ ◯ To Him is due the primal origin of the heavens and the earth; when He decreeth a matter He saith to it: “Be”; and it is. (Sūra 2: Baqara, or the Heifer, Ayat:117, Verses 286 — Madani; Revealed at Madina — Sections 40, https://quranyusufali.com/2/) ٣٠- أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ ◯ Do not the Unbelievers see That the heavens and the earth Were joined together (as one Unit of Creation), before We clove them asunder ? We made from water Every living thing. Will they Not then believe ? (Sūra 21: Anbiyāa, or The Prophets,Atat:30,Verses 112 — Makki; Revealed at Makka — Sections) The very early universe During the earliest moments of cosmic time, the energies and conditions were so extreme that current knowledge can only suggest possibilities, which may turn out to be incorrect. To give one example, eternal inflation theories propose that inflation lasts forever throughout most of the universe, making the notion of "N seconds since Big Bang" ill-defined. Therefore, the earliest stages are an active area of research and based on ideas that are still speculative and subject to modification as scientific knowledge improves. Although a specific "inflationary epoch" is highlighted at around 10−32 seconds, observations and theories both suggest that distances between objects in space have been increasing at all times since the moment of the Big Bang, and are still increasing. Planck epoch The Planck epoch is an era in traditional (non-inflationary) Big Bang cosmology immediately after the event which began the known universe. During this epoch, the temperature and average energies within the universe were so high that subatomic particles could not form. The four fundamental forces that shape the universe—gravitation, electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force—comprised a single fundamental force. Little is understood about physics in this environment. Traditional big bang cosmology predicts a gravitational singularity — a condition in which spacetime breaks down —before this time, but the theory relies on the theory of general relativity, which is thought to break down for this epoch due to quantum effects.[16] Grand unification epoch As the universe expanded and cooled, it crossed transition temperatures at which forces separated from each other. These cosmological phase transitions can be visualized as similar to condensation and freezing phase transitions of ordinary matter. At certain temperatures/energies, water molecules change their behavior and structure, and they will behave completely differently. Like steam turning to water, the fields which define the universe's fundamental forces and particles also completely change their behaviors and structures when the temperature/energy falls below a certain point. This is not apparent in everyday life, because it only happens at far higher temperatures than we usually see in the present day universe. (Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe). The Big Bang is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from a primordial state of high density and temperature.[Source: Bridge, Mark (Director) (30 July 2014). First Second of the Big Bang. How The Universe Works. Silver Spring, Maryland. Science Channel] It was first proposed as a physical theory in 1931 by Roman Catholic priest and physicist Georges Lemaître when he suggested the universe emerged from a "primeval atom". Various cosmological models of the Big Bang explain the evolution of the observable universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale form.[Sources: i) Silk 2009, p. 208. ii) Singh 2004,iii) NASA/WMAP Science Team (6 June 2011). "Cosmology: The Study of the Universe". Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. Washington, D.C.: NASA.] These models offer a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, and large-scale structure. The Standard Model of cosmology is based on a model of spacetime called the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric. A metric provides a measure of distance between objects. Crucially, these models are compatible with the Hubble–Lemaître law—the observation that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from Earth. Extrapolating this cosmic expansion backwards in time using the known laws of physics, the models describe an increasingly concentrated cosmos preceded by a singularity in which space and time lose meaning (typically named "the Big Bang singularity").[Source:Chow 2008, p. 211,Courtesy of:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang] Timeline According to the Big Bang models, the universe at the beginning was very hot and very compact, and since then it has been expanding and cooling. Singularity Research published in 2015 estimates the earliest stages of the universe's existence as taking place 13.8 billion years ago, with an uncertainty of around 21 million years at the 68% confidence level.[Source: Planck Collaboration (October 2016). "Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 594: Article A13. arXiv:1502.01589. Bibcode:2016A&A...594A..13P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830. S2CID 119262962. The Planck Collaboration in 2015 published the estimate of 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago (68% confidence interval). See PDF: page 32, Table 4, Age/Gyr, last column] The chronology of the universe describes the history and future of the universe according to Big Bang cosmology. Overview Chronology in five stages Diagram of evolution of the (observable part) of the universe from the Big Bang (left), the CMB-reference afterglow, to the present For the purposes of this summary, it is convenient to divide the chronology of the universe since it originated, into five parts. It is generally considered meaningless or unclear whether time existed before this chronology: The very early universe The first picosecond (10−12 seconds) of cosmic time includes the Planck epoch, during which currently established laws of physics may not have applied; the emergence in stages of the four known fundamental interactions or forces—first gravitation, and later the electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions; and the accelerated expansion of the universe due to cosmic inflation. Tiny ripples in the universe at this stage are believed to be the basis of large-scale structures that formed much later. Different stages of the very early universe are understood to different extents. The earlier parts are beyond the grasp of practical experiments in particle physics but can be explored through the extrapolation of known physical laws to extreme high temperatures. (Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe]. The early universe This period lasted around 370,000 years. Initially, various kinds of subatomic particles are formed in stages. These particles include almost equal amounts of matter and antimatter, so most of it quickly annihilates, leaving a small excess of matter in the universe. At about one second, neutrinos decouple; these neutrinos form the cosmic neutrino background (CνB). If primordial black holes exist, they are also formed at about one second of cosmic time. Composite subatomic particles emerge—including protons and neutrons—and from about 2 minutes, conditions are suitable for nucleosynthesis: around 25% of the protons and all the neutrons fuse into heavier elements, initially deuterium which itself quickly fuses into mainly helium-4. By 20 minutes, the universe is no longer hot enough for nuclear fusion, but far too hot for neutral atoms to exist or photons to travel far. It is therefore an opaque plasma. The recombination epoch begins at around 18,000 years, as electrons are combining with helium nuclei to form He+. At around 47,000 years, as the universe cools, its behavior begins to be dominated by matter rather than radiation. At around 100,000 years, after the neutral helium atoms form, helium hydride is the first molecule. Much later, hydrogen and helium hydride react to form molecular hydrogen (H2) the fuel needed for the first stars. At about 370,000 years,[Sources: i) Ryden 2006, eq. 6.41 ii) Tanabashi, M. 2018, p. 358, chpt. 21.4.1: "Big-Bang Cosmology" (76971+3162 −3167 years after the Big Bang. iii) Ryden 2006, pp. 194–1953]neutral hydrogen atoms finish forming ("recombination"), and as a result the universe also became transparent for the first time. The newly formed atoms—mainly hydrogen and helium with traces of lithium—quickly reach their lowest energy state (ground state) by releasing photons ("photon decoupling"), and these photons can still be detected today as the cosmic microwave background (CMB). This is the oldest direct observation we currently have of the universe. The Dark Ages and large-scale structure emergence This period measures from 370,000 years until about 1 billion years. After recombination and decoupling, the universe was transparent but the clouds of hydrogen only collapsed very slowly to form stars and galaxies, so there were no new sources of light. The only photons (electromagnetic radiation, or "light") in the universe were those released during decoupling (visible today as the cosmic microwave background) and 21 cm radio emissions occasionally emitted by hydrogen atoms. The decoupled photons would have filled the universe with a brilliant pale orange glow at first, gradually redshifting to non-visible wavelengths after about 3 million years, leaving it without visible light. This period is known as the cosmic Dark Ages (Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe). At some point around 200 to 500 million years, the earliest generations of stars and galaxies form (exact timings are still being researched), and early large structures gradually emerge, drawn to the foam-like dark matter filaments which have already begun to draw together throughout the universe. The earliest generations of stars have not yet been observed astronomically. They may have been huge (100–300 solar masses) and non-metallic,with very short lifetimes compared to most stars we see today. (Source: aforesaid). Galaxy clusters and superclusters emerge over time. At some point, high-energy photons from the earliest stars, dwarf galaxies and perhaps quasars leads to a period of reionization that commences gradually between about 250–500 million years and finishes by about 1 billion years (exact timings still being researched). The Dark Ages only fully came to an end at about 1 billion years as the universe gradually transitioned into the universe we see around us today, but denser, hotter, more intense in star formation, and more rich in smaller (particularly unbarred) spiral and irregular galaxies, as opposed to giant elliptical galaxies.(Source: aforesaid). The universe as it appears today The thin disk of our galaxy began to form at about 5 billion years (8.8 Gya),[11] and the Solar System formed at about 9.2 billion years (4.6 Gya), with the earliest traces of life on Earth emerging by about 10.3 billion years (3.5 Gya) [Source: del Peloso, Eduardo F.; da Silva, Licio; Porto de Mello, Gustavo F.; et al.. "The age of the Galactic thin disk from Th/Eu nucleocosmochronology – III. Extended sample" (PDF). Stellar atmospheres. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 440 (3): 1153–1159. arXiv:astro-ph/0506458. Bibcode:2005A&A...440.1153D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053307. S2CID 16484977]. and the Solar System formed at about 9.2 billion years (4.6 Gya), with the earliest traces of life on Earth emerging by about 10.3 billion years (3.5 Gya). The thinning of matter over time reduces the ability of gravity to decelerate the expansion of the universe; in contrast, dark energy (believed to be a constant scalar field throughout the visible universe) is a constant factor tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe. The universe's expansion passed an inflection point about five or six billion years ago, when the universe entered the modern "dark-energy-dominated era" where the universe's expansion is now accelerating rather than decelerating. The present-day universe is understood quite well, but beyond about 100 billion years of cosmic time (about 86 billion years in the future), we are less sure which path the universe will take.[Sources:i) Ryden 2006, eq. 6.33 ii)Bruce, Dorminey (1 February 2021). "The Beginning to the End of the Universe: The mystery of dark energy"]. Electroweak symmetry breaking 10−12 seconds after the Big Bang As the universe's temperature continued to fall below 159.5±1.5 GeV, electroweak symmetry breaking happened.[29] So far as we know, it was the penultimate symmetry breaking event in the formation of the universe, the final one being chiral symmetry breaking in the quark sector. This has two related effects: Via the Higgs mechanism, all elementary particles interacting with the Higgs field become massive, having been massless at higher energy levels. After electroweak symmetry breaking, the fundamental interactions we know of—gravitation, electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions—have all taken their present forms, and fundamental particles have their expected masses, but the temperature of the universe is still too high to allow the stable formation of many particles we now see in the universe, so there are no protons or neutrons, and therefore no atoms, atomic nuclei, or molecules. (More exactly, any composite particles that form by chance, almost immediately break up again due to the extreme energies.) The quark epoch Between 10−12 seconds and 10−5 seconds after the Big Bang The quark epoch began approximately 10−12 seconds after the Big Bang. This was the period in the evolution of the early universe immediately after electroweak symmetry breaking, when the fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction had taken their present forms, but the temperature of the universe was still too high to allow quarks to bind together to form hadrons. During the quark epoch the universe was filled with a dense, hot quark–gluon plasma, containing quarks, leptons and their antiparticles. Collisions between particles were too energetic to allow quarks to combine into mesons or baryons. The quark epoch ended when the universe was about 10−5 seconds old, when the average energy of particle interactions had fallen below the mass of the lightest hadron, the pion.[Sources:i) Petter 2013, p. 68,ii) Morison 2015, p. 298] Baryogenesis Perhaps by 10−11 seconds Baryons are subatomic particles such as protons and neutrons, that are composed of three quarks. It would be expected that both baryons, and particles known as antibaryons would have formed in equal numbers. However, this does not seem to be what happened—as far as we know, the universe was left with far more baryons than antibaryons. In fact, almost no antibaryons are observed in nature. It is not clear how this came about. Any explanation for this phenomenon must allow the Sakharov conditions related to baryogenesis to have been satisfied at some time after the end of cosmological inflation. Current particle physics suggests asymmetries under which these conditions would be met, but these asymmetries appear to be too small to account for the observed baryon-antibaryon asymmetry of the universe. Hadron epoch Between 10−5 second and 1 second after the Big Bang The quark–gluon plasma that composes the universe cools until hadrons, including baryons such as protons and neutrons, can form. Initially, hadron/anti-hadron pairs could form, so matter and antimatter were in thermal equilibrium. However, as the temperature of the universe continued to fall, new hadron/anti-hadron pairs were no longer produced, and most of the newly formed hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilated each other, giving rise to pairs of high-energy photons. A comparatively small residue of hadrons remained at about 1 second of cosmic time, when this epoch ended. Theory predicts that about 1 neutron remained for every 6 protons, with the ratio falling to 1:7 over time due to neutron decay. This is believed to be correct because, at a later stage, the neutrons and some of the protons fused, leaving hydrogen, a hydrogen isotope called deuterium, helium and other elements, which can be measured. A 1:7 ratio of hadrons would indeed produce the observed element ratios in the early and current universe.[ Source: Karki, Ravi (May 2010). "The Foreground of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis" (PDF). The Himalayan Physics. 1 (1): 79–82. doi:10.3126/hj.v1i0.5186] Neutrino decoupling and cosmic neutrino background (CνB) Around 1 second after the Big Bang At approximately 1 second after the Big Bang neutrinos decouple and begin travelling freely through space. As neutrinos rarely interact with matter, these neutrinos still exist today, analogous to the much later cosmic microwave background emitted during recombination, around 370,000 years after the Big Bang. The neutrinos from this event have a very low energy, around 10−10 times the amount of those observable with present-day direct detection. Even high-energy neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect, so this cosmic neutrino background (CνB) may not be directly observed in detail for many years, if at all.[Siegel, Ethan (9 September 2016). "Cosmic Neutrinos Detected, Confirming The Big Bang's Last Great Prediction" (Blog). Science. Forbes. Jersey City, NJ. ISSN 0015-6914] In 2015, it was reported that such shifts had been detected in the CMB. Moreover, the fluctuations corresponded to neutrinos of almost exactly the temperature predicted by Big Bang theory (1.96 ± 0.02K compared to a prediction of 1.95K), and exactly three types of neutrino, the same number of neutrino flavors predicted by the Standard Model.[aforesaid]. Possible formation of primordial black holes May have occurred within about 1 second after the Big Bang Primordial black holes are a hypothetical type of black hole proposed in 1966,[34] that may have formed during the so-called radiation-dominated era, due to the high densities and inhomogeneous conditions within the first second of cosmic time. Random fluctuations could lead to some regions becoming dense enough to undergo gravitational collapse, forming black holes. Current understandings and theories place tight limits on the abundance and mass of these objects. Lepton epoch Between 1 second and 10 seconds after the Big Bang The majority of hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilate each other at the end of the hadron epoch, leaving leptons (such as the electron, muons and certain neutrinos) and antileptons, dominating the mass of the universe. The lepton epoch follows a similar path to the earlier hadron epoch. Initially leptons and antileptons are produced in pairs. About 10 seconds after the Big Bang the temperature of the universe falls to the point at which new lepton–antilepton pairs are no longer created and most remaining leptons and antileptons quickly annihilated each other, giving rise to pairs of high-energy photons, and leaving a small residue of non-annihilated leptons. [3Sources: Kauffmann, Guinevere. "Thermal history of the universe and early growth of density fluctuations" (PDF) (Lecture). Garching: Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. Chaisson, Eric J. (2013). "First Few Minutes". Cosmic Evolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. "Timeline of the Big Bang". The Physics of the Universe] Photon epoch Between 10 seconds and 370,000 years after the Big Bang After most leptons and antileptons are annihilated at the end of the lepton epoch, most of the mass–energy in the universe is left in the form of photons. Therefore, the energy of the universe, and its overall behavior, is dominated by its photons. These photons continue to interact frequently with charged particles, i.e., electrons, protons and (eventually) nuclei. They continue to do so for about the next 370,000 years. Nucleosynthesis of light elements Between 2 minutes and 20 minutes after the Big Bang Between about 2 and 20 minutes after the Big Bang, the temperature and pressure of the universe allowed nuclear fusion to occur, giving rise to nuclei of a few light elements beyond hydrogen ("Big Bang nucleosynthesis"). About 25% of the protons, and all the neutrons fuse to form deuterium, a hydrogen isotope, and most of the deuterium quickly fuses to form helium-4. Atomic nuclei will easily unbind (break apart) above a certain temperature, related to their binding energy. From about 2 minutes, the falling temperature means that deuterium no longer unbinds, and is stable, and starting from about 3 minutes, helium and other elements formed by the fusion of deuterium also no longer unbind and are stable.[Source: Ryden, Barbara Sue (12 March 2003). "Astronomy 162 – Lecture 44: The First Three Minutes". Barbara S. Ryden's Home Page. Columbus, OH: Department of Astronomy, Ohio State University. Ryden, Barbara Sue (12 March 2003). "Astronomy 162 – Lecture 44: The First Three Minutes". Barbara S. Ryden's Home Page. Columbus, OH: Department of Astronomy, Ohio State University. Ryden, Barbara Sue (12 March 2003). "Astronomy 162 – Lecture 44: The First Three Minutes". Barbara S. Ryden's Home Page. Columbus, OH: Department of Astronomy, Ohio State University]. The amounts of each light element in the early universe can be estimated from old galaxies, and is strong evidence for the Big Bang. The Big Bang should produce about 1 neutron for every 7 protons, allowing for 25% of all nucleons to be fused into helium-4 (2 protons and 2 neutrons out of every 16 nucleons), and this is the amount we find today, and far more than can be easily explained by other processes.Similarly, deuterium fuses extremely easily; any alternative explanation must also explain how conditions existed for deuterium to form, but also left some of that deuterium unfused and not immediately fused again into helium.[32] Any alternative must also explain the proportions of the various light elements and their isotopes. A few isotopes, such as lithium-7, were found to be present in amounts that differed from theory, but over time, these differences have been resolved by better observations. Matter domination 47,000 years after the Big Bang Until now, the universe's large-scale dynamics and behavior have been determined mainly by radiation—meaning, those constituents that move relativistically (at or near the speed of light), such as photons and neutrinos.[Ryden 2006] As the universe cools, from around 47,000 years (redshift z = 3600),[2] the universe's large-scale behavior becomes dominated by matter instead. This occurs because the energy density of matter begins to exceed both the energy density of radiation and the vacuum energy density.[Zeilik & Gregory 1998, p. 497] Around or shortly after 47,000 years, the densities of non-relativistic matter (atomic nuclei) and relativistic radiation (photons) become equal, the Jeans length, which determines the smallest structures that can form (due to competition between gravitational attraction and pressure effects), begins to fall and perturbations, instead of being wiped out by free streaming radiation, can begin to grow in amplitude. From this point on, and for several billion years to come, the presence of dark matter accelerates the formation of structure in the universe. In the early universe, dark matter gradually gathers in huge filaments under the effects of gravity, collapsing faster than ordinary (baryonic) matter because its collapse is not slowed by radiation pressure. This amplifies the tiny inhomogeneities (irregularities) in the density of the universe which was left by cosmic inflation. Over time, slightly denser regions become denser and slightly rarefied (emptier) regions become more rarefied. Ordinary matter eventually gathers together faster than it would otherwise do, because of the presence of these concentrations of dark matter. The properties of dark matter that allow it to collapse quickly without radiation pressure, also mean that it cannot lose energy by radiation either. Losing energy is necessary for particles to collapse into dense structures beyond a certain point. Therefore, dark matter collapses into huge but diffuse filaments and haloes, and not into stars or planets. Ordinary matter, which can lose energy by radiation, forms dense objects and also gas clouds when it collapses. Recombination, photon decoupling, and the cosmic microwave background (CMB) 9-year WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation (2012). The radiation is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000.[ Wright 2004, p. 291] About 370,000 years after the Big Bang, two connected events occurred: the ending of recombination and photon decoupling. Recombination describes the ionized particles combining to form the first neutral atoms, and decoupling refers to the photons released ("decoupled") as the newly formed atoms settle into more stable energy states. Starting around 18,000 years, the universe has cooled to a point where free electrons can combine with helium nuclei to form He+ atoms. Neutral helium nuclei then start to form at around 100,000 years, with neutral hydrogen formation peaking around 260,000 years.[5 Sunyaev, R. A.; Chluba, J. (August 2009). "Signals From the Epoch of Cosmological Recombination". Astronomical Notes. 330 (7): 657–674. arXiv:0908.0435. doi:10.1002/asna.200911237] This process is known as recombination.[ Mukhanov 2005, p. 120] The name is slightly inaccurate and is given for historical reasons: in fact the electrons and atomic nuclei were combining for the first time. At around 100,000 years, the universe had cooled enough for helium hydride, the first molecule, to form.[52] In April 2019, this molecule was first announced to have been observed in interstellar space, in NGC 7027, a planetary nebula within this galaxy. (Much later, atomic hydrogen reacted with helium hydride to create molecular hydrogen, the fuel required for star formation.[ Mathewson, Samantha (18 April 2019). "Astronomers Finally Spot Universe's First Molecule in Distant Nebula". Space.com. New York: Future plc] Directly combining in a low energy state (ground state) is less efficient, so these hydrogen atoms generally form with the electrons still in a high-energy state, and once combined, the electrons quickly release energy in the form of one or more photons as they transition to a low energy state. This release of photons is known as photon decoupling. Some of these decoupled photons are captured by other hydrogen atoms, the remainder remain free. By the end of recombination, most of the protons in the universe have formed neutral atoms. This change from charged to neutral particles means that the mean free path photons can travel before capture in effect becomes infinite, so any decoupled photons that have not been captured can travel freely over long distances (see Thomson scattering). The universe has become transparent to visible light, radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation for the first time in its history. The background of this box approximates the original 4000 K color of the photons released during decoupling, before they became redshifted to form the cosmic microwave background. The entire universe would have appeared as a brilliantly glowing fog of a color similar to this and a temperature of 4000 K, at the time. The photons released by these newly formed hydrogen atoms initially had a temperature/energy of around ~ 4000 K. This would have been visible to the eye as a pale yellow/orange tinted, or "soft", white color.[ Mukhanov 2005, p. 120] Over billions of years since decoupling, as the universe has expanded, the photons have been red-shifted from visible light to radio waves (microwave radiation corresponding to a temperature of about 2.7 K). Red shifting describes the photons acquiring longer wavelengths and lower frequencies as the universe expanded over billions of years, so that they gradually changed from visible light to radio waves. These same photons can still be detected as radio waves today. They form the cosmic microwave background. early universe and how it developed. Around the same time as recombination, existing pressure waves within the electron-baryon plasma—known as baryon acoustic oscillations—became embedded in the distribution of matter as it condensed, giving rise to a very slight preference in distribution of large-scale objects. Therefore, the cosmic microwave background is a picture of the universe at the end of this epoch including the tiny fluctuations generated during inflation (see 9-year WMAP image), and the spread of objects such as galaxies in the universe is an indication of the scale and size of the universe as it developed over time.[i) Amos, Jonathan (13 November 2012). "Quasars illustrate dark energy's roller coaster ride". Science & Environment. BBC News. London: BBC]. SMALL BANG The pre-Industrial Revolution situation is considered as the ideal for the stability of the world's climate. Since the industrial revolution, carbon emissions have been considered as an indicator of climate change, although the day when people's intension were grew to back to the forest, leave the city, and the return from digital to analog in the last century, can be said to be the beginning of environmental awareness in the human mind. However later in 1970, people showed environmental awareness by observing World Earth Day for the first time in Washington. The Apollo-11 astronauts saw the earth as greenish from the lunar surface in 1969. After a few years, the Japanese astronauts saw the discolor condition of the earth and returned to earth with a sad heart and directly went to native village and devoted themselves to the Green Revolution. Since then, environmental awareness has progressed significantly, with regular COP conferences being held by the United Nations Environment Program every year. It is also being promised and fulfilled even if it is not as expected. However, there is supposed to be some reduction in temperature, but it is happening opposite reaction that the "universe is heading towards thermal death" Is entropy going from a small bang i.e. from cold to warm? Which is contrary to the usual classical behavior of entropy? Entropy Entropy is a scientific concept that is most commonly associated with cosmology. It has found far-ranging applications in cosmology. [Source: Wehrl, Alfred (1 April 1978). "General properties of entropy". Reviews of Modern Physics. 50 (2): 221–260. Bibcode:1978RvMP...50..221W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.50.221] Entropy is central to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system left to spontaneous evolution cannot decrease with time. As a result, isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium, where the entropy is highest. A consequence of the second law of thermodynamics is that certain processes are irreversible. Assuming that a finite universe is an isolated system, the second law of thermodynamics states that its total entropy is continually increasing. It has been speculated, since the 19th century, that the universe is fated to a heat death in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy so that no more work can be extracted from any source. But the IRRSTC observes that in 2023, the world has return to a state at least 130 million years after the Big Bang, i.e., about 1 million years ago today. This suggests that the world is not actually dying thermally, but rather experiencing a thermal expansion—a sign of the small bang. Black hole A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light and other electromagnetic waves, is capable of possessing enough energy to escape it.[Source: Wald 1984, pp. 299–300] Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole.[Sources: • Wald, R. M. (1997). "Gravitational Collapse and Cosmic Censorship". In Iyer, B. R.; Bhawal, B. (eds.). Black Holes, Gravitational Radiation and the Universe. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 69–86. arXiv:gr-qc/9710068. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-0934-7. ISBN 978-9401709347. • Overbye, Dennis (8 June 2015). "Black Hole Hunters". NASA. Archived from the original on 9 June 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015] The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon. A black hole has a great effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, but it has no locally detectable features according to general relativity.[Source: Hamilton, A. "Journey into a Schwarzschild black hole". jila.colorado.edu. In many ways, a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light.[Sources: • Schutz, Bernard F. (2003). Gravity from the ground up. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0. Singularity At the centre of a black hole, as described by general relativity, may lie a gravitational singularity, a region where the spacetime curvature becomes infinite.[Source: Carroll 2004, p. 205] For a non-rotating black hole, this region takes the shape of a single point; for a rotating black hole it is smeared out to form a ring singularity that lies in the plane of rotation.[Source: Carroll 2004, pp. 264–265] In both cases, the singular region has zero volume. It can also be shown that the singular region contains all the mass of the black hole solution.[Source: Carroll 2004, p. 252] The singular region can thus be thought of as having infinite density.[ "Sizes of Black Holes? How Big is a Black Hole?". Sky & Telescope. 22 July 2014.] When they reach the singularity, they are crushed to infinite density and their mass is added to the total of the black hole. Before that happens, they will have been torn apart by the growing tidal forces in a process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the "noodle effect".[Wheeler 2007, p. 182] Possibility of traveling to another universe Extending these solutions as far as possible reveals the hypothetical possibility of exiting the black hole into a different spacetime with the black hole acting as a wormhole.[ Carroll 2004, pp. 257–259 and 265–266] The possibility of traveling to another universe is, however, only theoretical since any perturbation would destroy this possibility.[ Droz, S.; Israel, W.; Morsink, S. M. (1996). "Black holes: the inside story". Physics World. 9 (1): 34–37. Bibcode:1996PhyW....9...34D. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/9/1/26.] It is expected that none of these peculiar effects would survive in a proper quantum treatment of rotating and charged black holes.[ Poisson, E.; Israel, W. (1990). "Internal structure of black holes". Physical Review D. 41 (6): 1796–1809. Bibcode:1990PhRvD..41.1796P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.41.1796. PMID 10012548.] গুটিয়ে নেয়ার আগে যা ঘটবে Sūra 99: Zilzāl, or The Convulsion Verses 8 — Madani; Revealed at Medina — Sections 1 ١- إِذَا زُلْزِلَتِ الْأَرْضُ زِلْزَالَهَا ◯ 1. When the Earth is Shaken to her (utmost) convulsion, ٢- وَأَخْرَجَتِ الْأَرْضُ أَثْقَالَهَا ◯ 2. And the Earth throws up Her burdens (from within), ٣- وَقَالَ الْإِنسَانُ مَا لَهَا ◯ 3. And man cries (distressed) : ‘ What is the matter with her ? ’— ٤- يَوْمَئِذٍ تُحَدِّثُ أَخْبَارَهَا ◯ 4. On that Day will she Declare her tidings : ٥- بِأَنَّ رَبَّكَ أَوْحَىٰ لَهَا ◯ 5. For that thy Lord will Have given her inspiration. ٦- يَوْمَئِذٍ يَصْدُرُ النَّاسُ أَشْتَاتًا لِّيُرَوْا أَعْمَالَهُمْ ◯ 6. On that Day will men Proceed in companies sorted out, To be shown the Deeds That they (had done). ٧- فَمَن يَعْمَلْ مِثْقَالَ ذَرَّةٍ خَيْرًا يَرَهُ ◯ 7. Then shall anyone who Has done an atom’s weight Of good, see it ! ٨- وَمَن يَعْمَلْ مِثْقَالَ ذَرَّةٍ شَرًّا يَرَهُ ◯ 8. And anyone who Has done an atom’s weight Of evil, shall see it. Sūra 88: Gāshiya, or The Overwhelming Event Verses 26 — Makki; Revealed at Mecca — Sections 1 ١- هَلْ أَتَاكَ حَدِيثُ الْغَاشِيَةِ ◯ 1. Has the story Reached thee, of The Overwhelming (Event) ? ٢- وُجُوهٌ يَوْمَئِذٍ خَاشِعَةٌ ◯ 2. Some faces, that Day Will be humiliated, ٣- عَامِلَةٌ نَّاصِبَةٌ ◯ 3. Laboring (hard), weary,— ٤- تَصْلَىٰ نَارًا حَامِيَةً ◯ 4. The while they enter The Blazing Fire,— ٥- تُسْقَىٰ مِنْ عَيْنٍ آنِيَةٍ ◯ 5. The while they are given, To drink, of a boiling hot spring, ٦- لَّيْسَ لَهُمْ طَعَامٌ إِلَّا مِن ضَرِيعٍ ◯ 6. No food will there be For them but a bitter Dhari’ ٧- لَّا يُسْمِنُ وَلَا يُغْنِي مِن جُوعٍ ◯ 7. Which will neither nourish Nor satisfy hunger. ٨- وُجُوهٌ يَوْمَئِذٍ نَّاعِمَةٌ ◯ 8. (Other) faces that Day Will be joyful, ٩- لِّسَعْيِهَا رَاضِيَةٌ ◯ 9. Pleased with their Striving,— ١٠- فِي جَنَّةٍ عَالِيَةٍ ◯ 10. In a Garden on high, ١١- لَّا تَسْمَعُ فِيهَا لَاغِيَةً ◯ 11. Where they shall hear No (word) of vanity : ١٢- فِيهَا عَيْنٌ جَارِيَةٌ ◯ 12. Therein will be A bubbling spring : ١٣- فِيهَا سُرُرٌ مَّرْفُوعَةٌ ◯ 13. Therein will be Thrones (Of dignity), raised on high, ١٤- وَأَكْوَابٌ مَّوْضُوعَةٌ ◯ 14. Goblets placed (ready), ١٥- وَنَمَارِقُ مَصْفُوفَةٌ ◯ 15. And Cushions set in rows, ١٦- وَزَرَابِيُّ مَبْثُوثَةٌ ◯ 16. And rich carpets (All) spread out. ١٧- أَفَلَا يَنظُرُونَ إِلَى الْإِبِلِ كَيْفَ خُلِقَتْ ◯ 17. Do they not look At the Camels, How they are made ?— ١٨- وَإِلَى السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ رُفِعَتْ ◯ 18. And at the Sky, How it is raised high ?— ١٩- وَإِلَى الْجِبَالِ كَيْفَ نُصِبَتْ ◯ 19. And at the Mountains, How they are fixed firm ?— ٢٠- وَإِلَى الْأَرْضِ كَيْفَ سُطِحَتْ ◯ 20. And at the Earth, How it is spread out ? ٢١- فَذَكِّرْ إِنَّمَا أَنتَ مُذَكِّرٌ ◯ 21. Therefore do thou give Admonition, for thou art One to admonish. ٢٢- لَّسْتَ عَلَيْهِم بِمُصَيْطِرٍ ◯ 22. Thou art not one To manage (men’s) affairs. ٢٣- إِلَّا مَن تَوَلَّىٰ وَكَفَرَ ◯ 23. But if any turn away And reject God,— ٢٤- فَيُعَذِّبُهُ اللَّـهُ الْعَذَابَ الْأَكْبَرَ ◯ 24. God will punish him With a mighty Punishment. ٢٥- إِنَّ إِلَيْنَا إِيَابَهُمْ ◯ 25. For to Us will be Their Return ; ٢٦- ثُمَّ إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا حِسَابَهُم ◯ 26. Then it will be for Us To call them to account. Sūra 100: ‘Ādiyat, or Those that run Verses 11 — Makki; Revealed at Makkah — Sections 1 ١٠- وَحُصِّلَ مَا فِي الصُّدُورِ ◯ 10. And that which is (Locked up) in (human) breasts Is made manifest— ١١- إِنَّ رَبَّهُم بِهِمْ يَوْمَئِذٍ لَّخَبِيرٌ ◯ 11. That their Lord had been Well-acquainted with them, (Even to) that Day ? Sūra 101: Al-Qāri’a, or The Day of Noise and Clamour Verses 11 — Makki; Revealed at Mecca — Sections 1 ١- الْقَارِعَةُ ◯ 1. The (Day) of Noise and Clamour : ٢- مَا الْقَارِعَةُ ◯ 2. What is the (Day) Of Noise and Clamour ? ٣- وَمَا أَدْرَاكَ مَا الْقَارِعَةُ ◯ 3. And what will explain To thee what the (Day) Of Noise and Clamour is ? ٤- يَوْمَ يَكُونُ النَّاسُ كَالْفَرَاشِ الْمَبْثُوثِ ◯ 4. (It is) a Day whereon Men will be like moths Scattered about, ٥- وَتَكُونُ الْجِبَالُ كَالْعِهْنِ الْمَنفُوشِ ◯ 5. And the mountains Will be like carded wool. ٦- فَأَمَّا مَن ثَقُلَتْ مَوَازِينُهُ ◯ 6. Then, he whose Balance (of good deeds) Will be (found) heavy, ٧- فَهُوَ فِي عِيشَةٍ رَّاضِيَةٍ ◯ 7. Will be in a Life Of good pleasure and satisfaction. ٨- وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَفَّتْ مَوَازِينُهُ ◯ 8. But he whose Balance (of good deeds) Will be (found) light,— ٩- فَأُمُّهُ هَاوِيَةٌ ◯ 9. Will have his home In a (bottomless) Pit. ١٠- وَمَا أَدْرَاكَ مَا هِيَهْ ◯ 10. And what will explain To thee what this is ? ١١- نَارٌ حَامِيَةٌ ◯ 11. (It is) a Fire Blazing fiercely ! Sūra 86: Tāriq, or The Night-Visitant Verses 17 — Makki; Revealed at Mecca — Sections 1 ١- وَالسَّمَاءِ وَالطَّارِقِ ◯ 1. By the Sky And the Night-Visitant (Therein);— ٢- وَمَا أَدْرَاكَ مَا الطَّارِقُ ◯ 2. And what will explain to thee What the Night-Visitant is?— ٣- النَّجْمُ الثَّاقِبُ ◯ 3. (It is) the Star Of piercing brightness;– ٤- إِن كُلُّ نَفْسٍ لَّمَّا عَلَيْهَا حَافِظٌ ◯ 4. There is no soul but has A protector over it. ٥- فَلْيَنظُرِ الْإِنسَانُ مِمَّ خُلِقَ ◯ 5. Now let man but think From what he is created ! ٦- خُلِقَ مِن مَّاءٍ دَافِقٍ ◯ 6. He is created from a drop emitted— ٧- يَخْرُجُ مِن بَيْنِ الصُّلْبِ وَالتَّرَائِبِ ◯ 7. Proceeding from between The backbone and the ribs : ٨- إِنَّهُ عَلَىٰ رَجْعِهِ لَقَادِرٌ ◯ 8. Surely (God) is able To bring him back (To life) ! ٩- يَوْمَ تُبْلَى السَّرَائِرُ ◯ 9. The Day that (All) things secret Will be tested. ١٠- فَمَا لَهُ مِن قُوَّةٍ وَلَا نَاصِرٍ ◯ 10. (Man) will have No power, And no helper. ١١- وَالسَّمَاءِ ذَاتِ الرَّجْعِ ◯ 11. By the Firmament Which returns (in its round), ١٢- وَالْأَرْضِ ذَاتِ الصَّدْعِ ◯ 12. And by the Earth Which opens out (For the gushing of springs Or the sprouting of vegetation),— ١٣- إِنَّهُ لَقَوْلٌ فَصْلٌ ◯ 13. Behold this is the Word That distinguishes (Good From Evil) : ١٤- وَمَا هُوَ بِالْهَزْلِ ◯ 14. It is not a thing For amusement. ١٥- إِنَّهُمْ يَكِيدُونَ كَيْدًا ◯ 15. As for them, they Are but plotting a scheme, , ١٦- وَأَكِيدُ كَيْدًا ◯ 16. And I am planning A scheme. ١٧- فَمَهِّلِ الْكَافِرِينَ أَمْهِلْهُمْ رُوَيْدًا ◯ 17. Therefore grant a delay To the unbelievers: Give respite to them Gently (for a while). Sūra 102: Takāthur, or Piling Up Verses 8 — Makki; Revealed at Mecca — Sections 1 ١- أَلْهَاكُمُ التَّكَاثُرُ ◯ 1. The mutual rivalry For piling up (the good things Of this world) diverts you (From the more serious things), ٢- حَتَّىٰ زُرْتُمُ الْمَقَابِرَ ◯ 2. Until ye visit the graves. ٣- كَلَّا سَوْفَ تَعْلَمُونَ ◯ 3. But nay, ye soon shall Know (the reality). ٤- ثُمَّ كَلَّا سَوْفَ تَعْلَمُونَ ◯ 4. Again, ye soon shall know ! ٥- كَلَّا لَوْ تَعْلَمُونَ عِلْمَ الْيَقِينِ ◯ 5. Nay, were ye to know With certainty of mind, (Ye would beware !) ٦- لَتَرَوُنَّ الْجَحِيمَ ◯ 6. Ye shall certainly see Hell-fire ! ٧- ثُمَّ لَتَرَوُنَّهَا عَيْنَ الْيَقِينِ ◯ 7. Again, ye shall see it With certainty of sight ! ٨- ثُمَّ لَتُسْأَلُنَّ يَوْمَئِذٍ عَنِ النَّعِيمِ ◯ 8. Then, shall ye be Questioned that Day About the joy (Ye indulged in !) এবার গবেষণা হোক কবর জিন্দেগীর অজানা কথা! প্রতিটি প্রাণীকে মৃত্যুর স্বাদ গ্রহণ করতে হবে-এ হচ্ছে আল্লাহ পাকের সৃষ্টি তত্তের চিরন্তন বিধান। এতে অবিশ্বা